Monophonic Music - Its Formal Construction - The Sonata Form

Monophonic as distinguished from polyphonic music has already been defined. It was originally vocal. The monophonic compositions for the harpsichord grew out of the use of this instrument as an accompaniment to the recitatives and airs of the opera, a form of composition which came into existence in Italy in the latter part of the 16th century.

These airs and their accompaniments were soon played on the keyed instruments in use, and gradually separate instrumental compositions in the same style came into vogue. These existed side by side with compositions of the prevalent polyphonic style, and gradually became popular. Indeed, the tendency toward the monophonic style showed itself even in many polyphonic compositions for the harpsichord, by such masters as Sebastian Bach and Haendel. In many of their suites, we find, in dances which are essentially polyphonic, numerous instances of sudden chords, filled up to double the number of voice parts properly belonging to the plan. These are hints of the employment of chords in masses, to produce climaxes, or to reinforce loud passages, which is one of the important characteristics of monophonic music. Many of these dances were also monophonic, in the sense that they had one predominant lyric melody, to which the remaining contrapuntal voices were subordinate.

Domenico Scarlatti went farther, and composed sonatas, monophonic in almost the same sense in which the sonatas of Haydn and Mozart are monophonic. In these, as a rule, only one melody is heard at a time. The accompaniment is made up of chords, more or less full, or of arpeggios. The melody is taken up, now by one voice and now by another, the accompaniment being also transposed.

These sonatas of Scarlatti's are the most eminent examples, known to the present writer, of monophonic music before the death of Sebastian Bach. They are compositions in one movement only. The only compositions for the harpsichord in more than one movement, at that time, were the suites, previously referred to, partitas and concertos. Sebastian Bach wrote organ sonatas in three movements, and his son Carl Philip Emanuel wrote similar ones for the harpsichord, of which two movements were commonly in the "sonata-form," on a smaller scale than those of later writers.

The sonata, as now understood, is a composition made up of a series of pieces, commonly three or four, arranged so as to contrast with each other in movement, and in emotional content. A symphony is simply a sonata written for orchestra, differing from the pianoforte sonata only in being laid out on a larger scale. Trios, quartets, quintets, concertos, etc., are composed on the same plan. They are simply sonatas for several instruments. The separate compositions of which a sonata is made up are called " movements," from the fact that they differ in the rate of speed. The more common order is as follows: The first movement is an allegro-a rapid, vigorous, spirited or lively composition, somewhat long and elaborate. The second movement is an adagio-slow, deeply tender or sad-or else an andante-pensive, tender, perhaps melancholy. The third movement is an allegretto, perhaps a stately minuet, or a playful scherzo. Both these movements are comparatively short. The last movement is a lively allegro, or, perhaps, a fiery, rushing presto, generally of considerable length. This order is often varied, but the principles of contrast involved in it must always underlie whatever order of movement may be adopted. But the term "Sonata-Form" in its narrow, technical sense, applies, not to the sonata as a whole, but to the form of composition commonly adopted in one, or at most two of the separate movements which make up a sonata, the construction of which must now be explained.

First of all, it is necessary to understand clearly what is meant by " form " in music. " Form " has to do with melody, mainly; with the rhythmical regulation of successions of tones, on a large scale. Melody, in order to be intelligible, or any way satisfactory, must be begun, continued and brought to a close in accordance with some definite plan. The chief requirements of this plan, like those of any work of art, are three, viz.: Unity, Variety and Symmetry.

The simplest form of composition which can give any satisfaction, regarded as a completed whole, is a single Period, the nearest analogue of which is a single couplet. A good example of this is in the church tune, "Onward, Christian Soldier," in "Hymns, Ancient and Modern." Here the period is divided into two sections, to fit the two lines of the couplet, and these two sections are balanced against each other, symmetrically. More commonly the two sections of a simple period are each divided by a caesura, or point of partial repose. Indeed, such a division is plainly to be seen in the tune above cited. Each of the two divisions of each section is then called a phrase. More frequently than otherwise, the third phrase is nearly or quite an exact repetition of the first, and the fourth similarly reminds one of the second, that is, they rhyme with each other, so that such a simple period is closely analogous to the ballad stanza. It is, in fact, the form commonly and necessarily used in setting such stanzas to music. The point of repose at the end of the first section (second phrase) is more marked than those which finish the first and third phrases, but is still only a half stop, or musical semicolon. The last section of course closes the period by a full stop. A good example of this form is the first period of the theme in the A major sonata of Mozart (No. 12, Peters' edition).

Another thing must now be noticed about this period, viz.: that what gives unity to it is the repeated employment of a single melodic fragment as a pattern or design. The melodic idea, or "motive," of the first measure is repeated in the second, but in different pitch. The third measure is less obviously an imitation of the first, but still has nothing incongruous with it. The second and fourth phrases have motives differing slightly from that of the first and third, but still analogous to it, and possibly derived from it, or at least suggested by it. This use of one or a few simple motives, of which the case cited is a very simple example, is carried out on the most elaborate scale in all large compositions. In the hands of a master, this multifarious transformation of the original motive invented, prevents unity from becoming uniformity, continually presents them in new and interesting lights, and develops from them, as from germs, a complex and elaborate whole, satfactory to the intellect and to the artistic sense.

When the composer comes to add a second period to his first, this new period will most naturally be a simple one, like the first, made up of two symmetrical sections, balanced against each other as antecedent and consequent. This period, however, must not be wholly new, else we should have not one composition, made up of two periods, but two compositions of one complete period each, wholly unrelated. The new period must, of course, contain new materials, or at least a fresh treatment of the old ones, otherwise it would be merely a repetition of the first period.

But with variety there must also be unity. The common way of uniting a second period with a first to form a composition is to make the first section of the new period new and fresh, while the second section is a more or less exact repetition of the closing section of the first period. This is precisely the plan of the Mozart example just cited, except that the second period, instead of coming to a full stop at the end of the eight measures, which would make it a simple period, is prolonged by the addition of a phrase of two measures, by which a very effective climax is produced, without in the least impairing the impression of symmetry.

This form is the germ from which all the musical forms have sprung. It is in two divisions, balanced against each other as are the two sections of a simple period. It may be enlarged by making each division consist of a period-group of two or more simple periods united. But in the shorter forms, when each simple or prolonged period comes to a full stop, the first division is commonly one period only, the second being composed either of one or two periods, with perhaps a coda. With this is contrasted another similar form, often called a "Trio," after which the original form is repeated, for the sake of unity. This is the form in which marches, waltzes, etc., are written. A good example of it is the andante of the sonata in C (No. 2, of the Peters edition) by Mozart. All the slow movements, minuets and scherzi of the Mozart and Beethoven sonatas are in this form, so that examples are easily accessible.

The sonata-form is the most elaborate and extended of the forms which have been developed from the elementary plan given above. Like the forms heretofore cited, it has two main divisions. In its most extended form, as developed in the orchestral symphony, each of these divisions is composed of several period-groups, as follows:

DIVISION I.
I. Principal Subject.
II. Transition.
III. Second Subject (in the Key of the Dominant)
IV. Transition.
V. Conclusion (in the Key of the Dominant). This division is repeated.

DIVISION II.
I. Elaboration, in which the ideas of the first division are turned over, modulated into different keys, presented in new lights, and combined and developed in various ways.
II. Transition.
III. Repetition of the whole of the first main division, the second subject and conclusion being this time in the key of the Tonic.

In the case of pianoforte sonatas, this form is often abbreviated, by making some of the transitions belong to the period-groups of the main ideas, instead of forming separate groups, and by making the elaboration, and, in fact, nearly all the period groups shorter than in the most elaborate works. It is to be noted also that in this form the periods which are associated in groups no longer end with full stops. These are reserved for the close of groups or even of larger divisions. The periods follow each other in continuous discourse, and are distinguished from one another not so much by the cadences as by the grouping of the ideas.

This is the briefest possible outline of Form, as now developed in monophonic music. In the strict polyphonic style of Sebastian Bach, as shown in his fugues, the most important productions of that style, Form consisted in the orderly arrangement and succession of the different groups formed by the separate entries of the subject and answer. Thus the exposition " formed the first group, the second complete entry of the subject and answer made a second group, in which the voices entered in a different order, by way of contrast. The same principles of Unity, Variety and Symmetry which underlie the construction of a modern sonata, controlled the fugue also. But there were no" periods," in the monophonic sense. But in Bach's compositions in the free style, as, for instance, in the Gavotte in D minor, in the Sixth English Suite, and in others, we find examples of simple period structure. Indeed, both this gavotte, and the" musette," which alternates with it, are almost exactly in the form of the andante of the Mozart sonata in C, cited above. They are polyphonic in the sense that each has more than one real melody ; for the bass is a "counterpoint," and not a mere foundation nor a series of accompanying arpeggios. But their form is precisely that of monophonic music, and it is so because there is one principal melody to which the counterpoint is subordinate. This melody is necessarily governed by the principles summarized in the above outline, for it is its accordance with these principles that makes it clearly intelligible.