The Contrapuntal Schools

Music Schools

By a school of music is meant a distinctive style, worked out by a group of composers. Such schools are formed sometimes by favorable national conditions, sometimes by the transcendent genius of a single leader, and sometimes by a combination of both these causes.

The first cause was chiefly responsible for the development of the contrapuntal schools, which were the outgrowth of activity in the art centres of civilization. Starting from Paris, they spread northward to the Netherlands, and their disciples thence migrated over Europe. Meanwhile dry and awkward musical attempts wre transformed into living, colored, and expressive organisms.

Early French School

During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries musicians in the north of France are active in laying the foundations for the Art of Counterpoint. Their most important accomplishment was, however, the union of secular and ecclesiastical methods resulting from the influence of the Trouveres upon the church style. Much attention was given to such subjects as the improvement of mensural notation and the development of imitation as a unifying factor in contrapuntal writing. The faux-bourdon, similar to the organum but with voice progressons in the pleasanter intervals of the third and sixth, arose in France durin gthe fourteenth century.

Composers and Their Works

In the twelfth century Leonin and Perotin, organists at Notre Dame in Paris, were leaders. Later French composers and theorists included Johannes de Garlandia in the thirteenth century, and Johannes de Muris and Philippe de Vitry in the fourteenth. Although the Trouveres were essentially writers of melodies for the single voice, the forms and characteristics of these melodies finally had marked influence upon the church style. Both secular and church musicians attempted contrapuntal settings of popular songs. Many graceful and naive chansons, rondeaux and ballades resulted, written generally for three voices. These, becoming more highly organized, developed into forms applied to the settings of certain portions of the mass. The motet, a kind of anthem with different words for each voice part, was written to both religious and secular texts.

Netherland Musicians

The scene of musical activity gradually moved northward, finally focusing in the Netherlands. Having studied the methods of the French school at Paris, its focal point, Netherlanders carried home its accomplishments, enlarged upon them, and, in accordance with the commercial spirit then rife, spread them abroad, becoming apostles to all civilized countries. Thus, during several centuries, Netherland musicians occupied leading positions throughout Europe as performers, teachers, composers, and founders of national schools.

Gallo-Belgic School

The forerunnerof the Netherland school proper was one established in the region embracing the north of France and the south of Belgium, and which existed from 1360 to 1460. While its clever musicians invented no strictly new forms, they did much toward securing naturalness and fluency in the use of former material, ameliorating the use of crude progressions, like consecutive fifths. Facility and variety were especially gained in the use of imitation. Voices were made to enter successively, imitation was placed at varying intervals, melodies were altered in imitation by lengthening or shortening the component notes, reversing their order, or invertin the progressions. The practice arose of using the melodies of popular songs, of which the "Armed Man" was especially frequent, as cantus for masses; and this even extended to the point at which the original secular words were sung to the cantus, while the Latin was retained in the other parts.

Composers

Details are meagre in regard to these. The father of the school was Guillermus Dufay (about 1400-1474), at one time singer in the Papal Chapel at Rome, and in his later life a canon at Cambrai. Others were Binchois and Busnois. While their most pretentious works were in the form of the mass, a number of the secular part-songs which have come down to us are especially interesting on account of their clear and unaffected style.

Netherland School

This school, which lasted till 1625, carried on the work of the Gallo-Belgic School, attaining the acme of technical facility in the use of contrapuntal devices. Many composers gained their chief renown in foreign lands; later ones introduced the element of real expression, which eventually supplanted the philosophical and problematical characteristics.

The founder, Johannes Okeghem (1434?-1496?), who spent the most of his life in the service of the French monarchs, raised counterpoint to a pitch of virtuosity: strange and impenetrable problems were evolved in his "puzzle canons", purposely made mystifying in their directions for perforance, for use in the secret guilds, who alone possessed the key to their solutions. Among Okeghem's followers in teh fifteenth century were Obrecht, chapelmaster in turn at Utrecht and Antwerp; Brumel, musician to the Duke of Ferrara; Tenctor, learned theorist; and Josquin des Pres (1445?-1521), the most celebrated of Okeghem's pupils. Des Pres was teh first to infuse genuine expression into his music, clarifying and giving meaning to the work of his predecessors. He lived an active life, first as singer in the Papal Choir, then at Ferrare, afterward at Paris, in the service of Louis XII. In his latter days he returned to his birthplace, Conde in Hainault, where he held a church preferment. Among his pupils were Gombert of Bruges, whose style was especially ceuphonious, and Jannequin, who wrote settings of eighty two psalms and "The Proverbs of Solomon" as well as descriptive music, notably "La Bataille".

Orlandus Lassus (1532-1594)

Lassus, the greatest composer of this school, was born at Mons, trained as a singer at home, lived in Italy, and afterwards became chapelmaster to Duke albert of Bavaria. As leader of the latter's celevrated choir he became far-famed as the "Prince of Musicians", receiving numerous honors. His last years were spent at Munich.

He was a prolific writer, leaving twenty-five hundred compositions, which include the notable "Seven Penitential Psalms" for from two to six voices, masses, motets, a "Stabat Mater" for two choirs, passion music, and secular madrigals, canzonets, musical jokes, etc. All these are of especial worth, owing to their complete subjection of the technical to the natural, their vivid word painting, and the simplicity of their contrapuntal style.

Other Netherlanders

Jacob Vaet (d.1567) lived in the service of the Emperor at Vienna, where he wrote masterly but heavy choral works, notably a motet depicting the Judgement Day. Christian Hollander was a co-worker with him. Others became identified with the Italian schools. The last member of the Netherland School was Sweelinck (1562-1621), who was a student at Venice but afterwards passed his days at his home in the Netherlands, where, as organist and teacher, he perpetuated the best traditions, and laid the foundations for the style of Bach.

The Early Venetian School

The art activity of which Venice was the centre in the sixteenth century attrated many musicians, including prominent Netherlanders; and under the leadership of Adrian Willaert of Bruges (cir. 1480-1562), a school was founded which introduced the same element of color into music that characterized the parallel school of painting. This element was sought by the use of varied voice combinations, notably through two or more choirs; and by the employment of instruments for religious and secular purposes, both with voices and for independent work. Thus the Venetian school is said to have given to instrumental music an independent basis.

St. Mark's chaurch, built in Byzantine style in the eleventh century, was the focal point for teachers and students from all lands, and the scene of the activity of a long line of distinguished organists.

As organist here, Willaert materially enriched the service by employing for the first time two and sometimes three choirs, each singing in four parts, and used both antiphonally and in combination. The idea of these choirs was probably suggested to him by the fact that St. Mark's possessed two find and fuly equipped organs. Progressions of plain chords, and modern harmonic relations characterized his music. Many of his secular compositions were written in the form of the madrigal, which was given new vitality by him, and which gained immediate popularity in all countries. This was a form of motet, with chivalric words, tuneful simplicity, gay and delicate sentiment.

Willaert left many pupils, of whom Cyprian de Rore (d. 1565), his successor at St. Mark's, used many chromatic intervals and modulations, still further developing his style. Others were Zarlino (d. 1590), a celebrated theorist and advocate of "equial temperament" in the scale; and Andrea Gabrieli (cir. 1510-1586), another organist of St. Mark's, who infused much noble sentiment into his works, which include compositions for both voices and organ.

The nephew of the last named, Giovanni Gabrieli (1557-1613?), excelled in composition and organ playing at St. Mark's. His compositions show exceptional skill in the management of a large number of voice parts, sometimes as many as sixteen or even nineteen, and in rich tonal coloring, secured by bold chormatic modulations and by adding an orchestra to the voices.

Many composers wrote secular compositions, madrigals, villotas, villanellas, canzonettas, and dances with vocal accompaniment called ballets or barcarolles, all of which show skill and grace in part-writing.

Later Venetian School

This, still grouped about the organists of St. Mark's, existed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In the midst of the frivolous and artificial tendencies of the times it adhered to the lfoty ideals of its predecessor, employing a more animated counterpoint, and a more expressive style. Chief composers were legrenzi (cir. 1625-1690); his celebrated pupil Lotti (1667?-1740), a musician whose works were of great sincerity and grandeur; and pupils of the latter.

The Roman School

While composers in the North of Italy were cultivating brilliant secular styles, those at Rome were pursuing a more conservative course. The exating musical standards at such establishments as St. Peter's and the Papal or Sistine Chapel furnished ample incentive for the attainment of the acme of perfection in contrapuntal writing for voices. Netherland masters, such as Dufay and Des Pres, found here a natural centre of activity, handing on their ideals to Italian musicians.

Among the latter by far the greatest was Giovanni Pierluigi (1526?-1594), called Palestrisa from the village near Rome where he was born. After early sutdy in Rome, he served as organist in his native town so successfully that he was appointed chapelmaster at St. Peter's in 1551, remaining in this positions till 1555, when he was for a short time a singer in the Papel Choir. He then became chapelmaster successively at the Lateran and Santa Maria Maggiore. While he was occupying the latter position, the Council of Trent (1545-1563) met ot consider abuses in the churhc, decreed that the meaningless complications and degenerate style of singing in church music must be reformed; and, as a result of the appointment of a committee of eight cardinals to consider the matter, Palestrina's "Mass of Pople Marcellus" was recommended as a model of purity of style.

Soon afer this event, Palestrina received the distinction of Composer to the Papal Choir, an honor conferred only upon him and his successor Anerio. He was recalled to the post of chapelmaster at St. Peter's in 1571, a position which he retained till his death. His latter years were spent in an ease contrasting with his earlier ones, which were troubled by severe domestic afflitions and the cabals of jealous rivals.

His numerous works include over 90 masses, over 500 motets, and many other compositions, mostly sacred, although embracing a number of graceful madrigals. His style is essentially vocal, unsensational, undramatic and impersonal. The structure is simple, plain chords predominating; yet much subtlety in expression is demanded for effective rendition. This so-called "Palestrina style" was practised by many contemporaries and followers who perpetuated its forms and methods through the seventeenth and into the eighteenth century. Of these, Giovanni M Nanini (d. 1607), whose brother G.B. Nanini (d.c.1612) was also a famous musician, founded a school at Rome in which Palestrina taught. Gregorio Allegri (d.1652) and Francesco Foggia (d.1688) were also important.